Performative Hate Speech Acts. Perlocutionary and Illocutionary Understandings in International Human Rights Law
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17561/tahrj.n12.6Keywords:
hate speech, freedom of speech, performativity, non-dominationAbstract
The first part of this work analyses the concept of hate speech and its legal-philosophical foundations linked to freedom of speech, through the use of tools provided by current trends in the theory of performativity. The second part, in turn, aims to suggest two possible perspectives on the translation of these philosophical demands into positive legislation within human rights law: the first one based on a liberal conception of freedom as non-interference and a perlocutionary understanding of performative speech acts; the second one adopting a neo-republican interpretation of freedom as non-domination and an illocutionary understanding of speech acts. Finally, the work aims to critically sift through the application of the theory of performativity to the legal definitions that hate speech has acquired within this context.
References
ALFINO, M. (1991). Another Look at the Derrida-Searle Debate. Philosophy and Retho-ric, 24(2), pp. 143-146.
ANSUÁTEGUI ROIG, F.J. (1994). Orígenes doctrinales de la libertad de expresión. Ma-drid: Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Boletín Oficial del Estado.
ANSUÁTEGUI ROIG, F.J. (2002). Poder, ordenamiento jurídico, derechos. Madrid: Dykinson.
ASÍS ROIG, R. DE. (2010). Sobre el concepto y el fundamento de los derechos. Una aproximación dualista, Madrid: Dykinson.
AUSTIN, J.L. (1962). How to Do Things with Words. The William James Lectures deliv-ered at Harvard University in 1955. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
AVRAMIDES, A. (2001). Intention and Convention. In: B. Hale, and C. Wright, eds., A Companion to the Philosophy of Language. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 60-86.
BAKER, C.E. (2009). Autonomy and Hate Speech. In: I. Hare, and J. Weinstein, eds., Extreme Speech and Democracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 39-158.
ttps://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199548781.003.0009
BAKER, C.E. (2012). Hate Speech. In: M. Herz, and P. Molnar, eds., The Content and Context of Hate Speech. Rethinking Regulation and Responses. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 57-80.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139042871.007
BARENDT, E. (2007). Freedom of Speech. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199225811.001.0001
BARRANCO AVILÉS, M.C. (2000). Notas sobre la libertad republicana y los derechos fundamentales como límite al poder. Derechos y Libertades, 9, pp. 68-72.
BARRANCO AVILÉS, M.C. (2001). El concepto Republicano de Libertad y el modelo constitucional de derechos fundamentales. In: Anuario de Filosofía del Derecho, 18, 2001, pp. 205-226.
BARRANCO AVILÉS, M.C. (2009). Teoría del Derecho y derechos fundamentales. Lima: Palestra.
BERLIN, I. (2002). Two Concepts of Liberty [1969]. In: Id., Liberty, ed. by H. Hardy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 166-217.
https://doi.org/10.1093/019924989X.003.0004
BOHMAN, J. (2009). Cosmopolitan Republicanism and the Rule of Law. In: S. Besson, J.L. Martí, Legal Republicanism. National and International Perspectives, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 60-77.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199559169.003.0003
BRACKEN, H. (1994). Freedom of Speech: Words Are Not Deeds. Westport: Praeger.
BROWN, A. (2015). Hate Speech Law. A Philosophical Examination. New York: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315714899
BUTLER, J. (1997). Excitable Speech. A Politics of the Performative. New York: Routledge.
CARUSO, C. (2011). Ai confini dell’abuso del diritto: l’hate speech nella giurisprudenza della Corte Europea dei Diritti dell’Uomo. In: L. Mezzetti, and A. Morrone, eds., Lo strumento costituzionale dell’ordine pubblico europeo. Nei sessant’anni della Convenzione per la salvaguardia dei diritti dell’uomo e delle libertà fondamentali (1950-2010). Torino: Giappichelli, pp. 339-352.
CARUSO, C. (2017). L’hate speech a Strasburgo: il pluralismo militante del sistema convenzionale. Quaderni Costituzionali, 37(4), pp. 963-981.
CASADEI TH., a cura di. (2008). “Razza”, discriminazioni, istituzioni. Fascicolo monografico della Rivista trimestrale di scienza dell’amministrazione, 52.
CASADEI, TH. (2016). Il rovescio dei diritti umani: razza, discriminazione, schiavitù. Roma: DeriveApprodi.
COLEBROOK, C. (2010). The Linguistic Turn in Continental Philosophy. In: A.D. Shrift, ed., The History of Continental Philosophy, vol. VI, Poststructuralism and Criti-cal Theory’s Second Generation. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, pp. 279-309.
CONSTANT, B. (2001). La libertà degli antichi, paragonata a quella dei moderni [1819], traduzione e cura di Giovanni Paoletti. Torino: Einaudi.
CONTE, A.G. (1994). Forma Performativa. Anuario de Filosofía del Derecho, 11, pp. 381-392, p. 382.
CRENSHAW, K., and GOTANDA, N., and PELLER, G., and THOMAS, K., eds. (1996). Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings That Formed the Movement. New York: New Press.
CUEVA FERNÁNDEZ, R. (2012). El «discurso del odio» y su prohibición. Doxa. Cuader-nos de Filosofía del Derecho, 35, pp. 437-455.
https://doi.org/10.14198/DOXA2012.35.18
DELGADO, R., and STEFANCIC, J. (1996). Ten Arguments against Hate-Speech Regula-tion: How Valid? Northern Kentucky Law Review, 23, pp. 475-490.
DELGADO, R., and STEFANCIC, J. (2004). Understanding Words That Wound, Boulder: Westview Press, Boulder.
DERRIDA, J. (1988). Signature, Event, Context [1972]. In Id., Limited Inc., ed. by G. Graff. Evanston (Ill.): Northwestern University Press.
DIGESER, P. (1995). Our Politics, Our Selves? Liberalism, Identity, and Harm, Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400821716
DWORKIN, R. (1977). Taking Rights Seriously, Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press.
DWORKIN, R. (1992). The Coming Battles over Free Speech. The New York Review of Books, 11 June 1992, pp. 55-64.
DWORKIN, R. (1996). Freedom’s Law. The Moral Reading of the American Constitution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
DWORKIN, R. (2009). Foreword. In I. Hare, and J. Weinstein (eds.), Extreme Speech and Democracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. V-IX.
EMERSON, T. (1963). Toward a General Theory of the First Amendment. Yale Law Journal, 72, pp. 877-956.
https://doi.org/10.2307/794655
FARROR, S. (1996). Molding the Matrix: The Historical and Theoretical Foundations of International Law concerning Hate Speech. Berkeley Journal of International Law, 14(1), pp. 1-98.
FEINBERG, J. (1984). The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law, vol. I, Harm to Others. Oxford-New York: Oxford University Press.
FEINBERG, J. (1985). The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law, vol. II, Offense to Others. Oxford-New York: Oxford University Press.
FIGUEROA ZIMMERMANN, F. (2016). Bajo sospecha: El liberalismo y la regulación del Hate Speech. In: Libertades Públicas. Colección breviarios, 6, pp. 1-17.
FISH, S. (1994). There’s No Such Thing as Free Speech, and it’s a Good Thing, Too. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
FISS, O. (1996). The Irony of Free Speech. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press.
FOUCAULT, M. (1977). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison [1975], trad. byA. Sheridan. Hardmondsworth: Penguin.
FOUCAULT, M. (1983). The Subject and Power. In: H.L. Dreayfus, and P. Rainbow, Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics. Berkeley: University of Cali-fornia Press.
GASCÓN CUENCA, A. (2016). Estándares internacionales de protección ante el discurso del odio en el ámbito internacional. In: Id., El discurso del odio en el ordena-miento jurídico español: su adecuación a los estándares internacionales de pro-tección. Cizur Menor: Aranzadi, pp. 23-73.
GELBER, K. (2002). Speaking Back. The free speech versus hate speech debate. Phila-delphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
https://doi.org/10.1075/dapsac.1
GREENAWALT, K. (1989a). Speech, Crime, and the Uses of Language, Oxford Universi-ty Press, Oxford, 1989, pp. 79-163.
GREENAWALT, K. (1989b). Free Speech Justifications. In: Columbia Law Review, 89, 1, pp. 119-155.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1122730
HABERMAS, J. (1994). Derechos humanos y soberanía popular: las concepciones liberal y republicana, trad. by J. González Amuchastegui. Derechos y Libertades, 3, pp. 215-230.
HEINZE, E. (2016). Hate Speech and Democratic Citizenship. Oxford: Oxford Universi-ty Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198759027.001.0001
HEYMAN, S. J. (1998). Righting the Balance: An Inquiry into the Foundations and Lim-its of Freedom of Expression. In: Boston University Law Review, 78, pp. 1275-1392.
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.157818
HONOHAN, I. (2002). Civic Republicanism. London-New York: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203460894
HORNSBY, J. (1994). Illocution and its significance. In: S. Tsohatzidis, ed., Foundations of Speech Act Theory: Philosophical and Linguistic Perspectives. London: Routledge, pp. 187-207.
HORNSBY, J. (2008). Speech Acts and Performatives. In: E. Lepore, and B.C. Smith, eds., The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Language, Oxford: Oxford Univer-sity Press, pp. 893-910.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199552238.003.0035
HORNSBY, J., and LANGTON, R. (1998). Free Speech and Illocution. Legal Theory, 4, pp. 21-37.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1352325200000902
JACOBSON, D. (1995). Freedom of Speech Acts? A Response to Langton. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 24(1), pp. 64-79.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1088-4963.1995.tb00022.x
KAUFMAN, G.A. (2015). Odium dicta. Libertad de expresión y protección de grupos dis-criminados en internet, Consejo Nacional para Prevenir la Discriminación, Mexi-co.
KENNEDY, R. (2003). Nigger: The Strange Career of a Troublesome Word. New York: Vintage.
KOLTAY, A. (2013). Freedom of Speech. The Unreachable Mirage. Budapest: Wolters Kluwer.
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2216655
LABORDE, C., AND MAYNOR, J. (2008). The Republican Contribution to Contemporary Political Theory. In: Iid. (eds.), Republicanism and Political Theory. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 1-28.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199550210.003.0001
LANGTON, R. (1993). Speech Acts and Unspeakable Acts. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 22(4), pp. 293-330.
LANGTON, R. (2012). Beyond Belief: Pragmatics in Hate Speech and Pornography. In: I. Maitra, and M.K. Gowan, eds., Speech and Harm: Controversies over Free Speech. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 72-93.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199236282.003.0004
LANGTON, R. (2018). The Authority of Hate Speech. To be published in: J. Gardner, L. Green, and B. Leiter, Oxford Studies in Philosophy of law, vol. III, Oxford: Ox-ford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198828174.003.0004
LANGTON, R., HASLANGER, S., and ANDERSON, L. (2012). Language and Race. In: G. Russell, and D. Graff Fara, eds., The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Language. London: Routledge, pp. 753-767.
LAWRENCE III, CH.R. (1987). The Id, the Ego, and Equal Protection: Reckoning with Unconscious Racism. Stanford Law Review, 39, pp. 317-388.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1228797
LAWRENCE III, CH.R. (1990). If He Hollers Let Him Go: Regulating Racist Speech on Campus”, in Duke Law Journal, 1990, pp. 431-483.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1372554
LEEZENBERG, M. (2013). Power in speech actions. In: M. Sbisà, and K. Turner, Prag-matics of Speech Actions, Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 287-312.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110214383.287
LOIZIDOU, E. (2007). Judith Butler. Ethics, Law, Politics. New York: Routledge-Cavendish.
LOVETT, F. (2007). A General Theory of Domination & Justice, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
LOXLEY, J. (2007). Performativity. London: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203391280
MACKINNON, C.A. (1993). Only Words. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press.
MACLURE, J. (2017). The Regulation of Hateful and Hurtful Speech: Liberalism’s Uncomfortable Predicament. In: McGill Law Journal, 63, 1, pp. 133-154.
https://doi.org/10.7202/1054353ar
MARCUS, K.L. (2008). Higher Education, Harassment, and First Amendment Opportun-ism. William and Mary Bill of Rights Journal, 16, pp. 1025-1059.
MARTÍNEZ GARCÍA, J.I. (1999). Los derechos humanos y el poder del lenguaje. Derechos y Libertades, 4(7), pp. 335-357.
MATSUDA, M.J. (1989). Public Response to Racist Speech: Considering the Victim’s Story. Michigan Law Review, 87, 1989, pp. 2320-2381.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1289306
MCHANGAMA, J. (2015). The Problem with Hate Speech Laws. The Review of Faith & International Affairs, 13(1), pp. 75-82.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2015.1005919
MEDINA, J. (2006). Speaking from Elsewhere. A Nex Contextualist Perspective on Mean-ing, Identity, and Discursive Agency. Albany: State University of New York Press.
MEDINA, J. (2010). The Performative Turn and the Emergence of Post-Analytic Philoso-phy. In: A.D. Shrift, ed., The History of Continental Philosophy, vol. 7, After Poststructuralism: Transitions and Transformations, ed. by R. Braidotti, Chica-go: The University of Chicago Press, pp. 275-305.
MENDEL, T. (2012). Does International Law Provide for Consistent Rules on Hate Speech?. In: M. Herz, and P. Molnar, eds., The Content and Context of Hate Speech. Rethinking Regulation and Responses. Cambridge: Cambridge Universi-ty Press, pp. 417-429.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139042871.029
MILL, J.S. (1978). On Liberty [1859]. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.
NADEAU, CH. (2004). Non-Domination as a Moral Ideal. In D. Weinstock, Ch. Nadeau (eds.), Republicanism: History, Theory and Practice. London: Frank Cass Publishers, pp. 104-116
NEALON, J.T. (2017). Jokes and the Performative in Austin And Derrida; or, The Truth is a Joke? Cultural Critique, 95, pp. 1-24.
https://doi.org/10.5749/culturalcritique.95.2017.0001
NORRIS, C. (1982). Deconstruction: Theory and Practice. London: Methuen.
O’LEARY, T. (2010). Michel Foucault. In: A.D. Shrift, ed., The History of Continental Philosophy, vol. 6, Poststructuralism and Critical Theory’s Second Generation. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, pp. 67-89.
PAREKH, B. (2012). Is There a Case for Banning Hate Speech? In: M. Herz, and P. Molnar, eds., The Content and Context of Hate Speech. Rethinking Regulation and Responses, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 37-56.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139042871.006
PAYNE, M. (1995). Introduction. In: S. Cavell, ed., Philosophical Passages: Wittgen-stein, Emerson, Austin, Derrida, Cambridge (Mass.): Blackwell, pp. 5-6.
PECES-BARBA MARTÍNEZ, G. (1995). Curso de Derechos Fundamentales. Teoría gene-ral, con la colaboración de R. De Asís Roig, Carlos R. Fernández Liesa, Ángel Llamas Cascón. Madrid: Universidad Carlos III de Madrid – Boletín Oficial del Estado.
PÉREZ DE LA FUENTE, O. (2010a). Libertad de expresión y el caso del lenguaje del odio. Una aproximación desde la perspectiva norteamericana y la perspectiva alemana. Cuadernos Electrónicos de Filosofía del Derecho, 21, pp. 67-104.
PÉREZ DE LA FUENTE, O. (2010b). El enfoque español sobre lenguaje del odio. In: Id., J. Oliva Martínez, and J. Daniel, eds., Una discusión sobre identidad, minorías y solidaridad. Madrid: Dykinson, pp. 133-155.
PETTIT, PH. (1997). Republicanism. A Theory of Freedom and Government 1997, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
PETTIT, PH. (2001). A Theory of Freedom: From the Psychology to the Politics of Agency, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
PETTIT, PH. (2013). Two Republican Traditions. In A. Niederberger, and P. Schink, Republican Democracy. Liberty, Law and Politics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, pp. 169-204.
https://doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9780748643066.003.0008
RABOSSI, E.A. (1972). Locuciones e ilocuciones: Searle y Austin. Revista Hispanoame-ricana de Filosofía, 18(6), pp. 3-41.
RAZ, J. (1995). Rights and Politics. In: Indiana Law Journal, 7, 1, 1995, pp. 27-44.
RODRÍGUEZ MONTAÑÉS, T. (2012). Libertad de expresión, discurso extremo y delito. Una aproximación desde la Constitución a las fronteras del derecho penal. Valencia: Tirant lo Blanch.
RODRÍGUEZ URIBES, J.M. (1999). Opinión pública. Concepto y modelos históricos, Ma-drid-Barcelona: Marcial Pons, Ediciones Jurídicas y sociales.
RORTY, R. (1967). The Linguistic Turn. Recent Essays in Philosophical Method. Chica-go-London: The University of Chicago Press.
SÁNCHEZ GONZÁLEZ, S. (1992). La libertad de expresión. Madrid: Marcial Pons, pp. 31-33.
SBISÀ, M. (2013). Locution, Illocution, Perlocution. In: M. Sbisà, and K. Turner, eds., Pragmatics of Speech Actions, Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 25-75.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110214383.25
SCHAUER, F. (1982). Free Speech: A Philosophical Enquiry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
SEARLE, J.R. (1965). What is a Speech Act? In: M. Black, ed., Philosophy in America, London: Cornell University Press, pp. 221-239.
SEARLE, J.R. (1969). Speech Acts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139173438
SEARLE, J.R. (1989). How Performatives Work. Linguistics and Philosophy, 12, pp. 535-558.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00627773
SEARLE, J.R. (2001). J.L. Austin. In: A.P. Martinich, and D. Sosa, eds., A Companion to Analytic Philosophy, London: Blackwell, pp. 218-230.
SEARLE, J.R. (2002). Individual Intentionality and Social Phenomena in the Theory of Speech Acts. In: Id., Consciousness and Language, Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-versity Press, pp. 142-155.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511606366.010
SKINNER, Q. (1986). “The Paradoxes of Political Liberty. In: The Tanner Lectures on Human Value, VII. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
SKINNER, Q. (1988). Liberty before Liberalism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
SMITH, B. (2012). John Searle: From Speech Acts to Social Reality”. In Id., ed., John Searle, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1-33.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511613999.001
SORIAL, S. (2013). Free Speech, Hate Speech, and the Problem of (Manufactured) Au-thority. In: Canadian Journal of Law and Society, 29, 1, pp. 59-75.
https://doi.org/10.1017/cls.2013.43
SPIGNO, I. (2018). Discorsi d’odio. Modelli costituzionali a confronto. Milano: Giuffrè.
SPITZ, J.-F. (1994). The Concept of Liberty in ‘A Theory of Justice’ and Its Republican Version. In: Ratio Juris, 7, 3, 1994, pp. 331-347.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9337.1994.tb00187.x
STROSSEN, N. (1990). Regulating Racist Speech on Campus: A Modest Proposal. Duke Law Journal, pp. 484-573.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1372555
SUNSTEIN, C.R. (1993). Democracy and the Problem of Free Speech. New York: The Free Press (Macmillan).
THOMAS, K., and ZANETTI, GF., eds. (2005). Legge, razza, diritti. La Critical Race Theory negli Stati Uniti. Reggio Emilia: Diabasis.
TIRRELL, L. (2012). Genocidal Language Games. In: I. Maitra, and M.K. Gowan, (eds.), Speech and Harm: Controversies over Free Speech. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 174-221.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199236282.003.0008
WALDRON., J. (1987). Theoretical Foundations of Liberalism. In: The Philosophical Quarterly, 37, 147, pp. 127-150.