Identity of Roma women and processes of international and transitional justice
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17561/tahrj.v17.6385Keywords:
Roma Women, Ethnic Identity, Transitional Justice, International Tribunals, European UnionAbstract
Among the women involved in international legal environments, there are women who are administrators of justice, and women who remain as recipients, consumers or petitioners of justice. The question of identity, be it national, cultural, ethnic, religious or otherwise may become crucial when positioning human beings in one side of justice or another. This article seeks to analyse the formation of identities and the characteristics of Roma women’s identity and specifically their roles in international justice together with some actual European political stances towards the Roma peoples. Part of the study will take into account the sequence of processes that take place from the appointment of international judges to the resolutions of the United Nations Security Council, and that lead to the granting of a certain place for women in the transitional/international justice scene. Nevertheless, there are also groups of women who hardly participate in the international legal scene and, although their role has historically been, and still is, reduced to being victims, their possibilities of action in the field justice are extraordinarily limited. This is the case of Roma women in Europe.
References
About, I. (2012). “Underclass Gypsies: An Historical Approach on Categorisation and Exclusion in France in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries”. In Michael Stewart (ed.) The Gypsy ‘Menace’. Populism and the new Anti-Gypsy Politics. London: Hurst & Company.
Albert, G. (2012). “Anty-Gypsyism and the Extreme Right in the Czech Republic 2008-2011”. In Stewart, M. (ed.) The Gypsy ‘Menace’. Populism and the new Anti-Gypsy Politics. London: Hurst & Company.
Amnesty International (2012). Old Crimes, Same Suffering. No Justice for Survivors of Wartime Rape in North-east Bosnia and Herzegovina EUR63/002/2012.
Aolain, F. N. (1997). “Radical rules: The effects of evidential and procedural rules on the regulation of sexual violence in war”, Albany Law Review, 60(3), pp. 883-905.
Aolain, F. and Turner, C. (2007). “Gender, Truth & Transition”, UCLA Women’s Law Journal, vol. 16, pp. 229-279. https://scholarship.law.umn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1426&context=faculty_articles
Argibay, Carmen M. (2003). “Sexual Slavery and the «Comfort Women» of World War II”, Berkeley Journal of International Law, 21, pp. 375-389.
Asztalos Morell, I. (2016). “Roma women’s marginalities in the recognition struggles of a Hungarian Roma Women’s NGO” Analize - Journal of Gender and Feminist Studies, no. 7 (21), pp. 9-26.
Bauman, Z. (2004). Europe, an Unfinished Adventure. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Beck, U. (1992). Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity. London: Sage Publications.
Bell, C. (2015). “Text and Context: Evaluating peace agreements for their ’gender perspective’”. UN Women. https://wps.unwomen.org/pdf/research/Bell_EN.pdf
Bell, C. and O’Rourke, C. (2010). “Peace Agreements or Piece of Paper? The Impact of UNSC Resolution 1325 on Peace Processes and their Agreements”, International and Comparative Law Quarterly 59, pp. 941-980. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002058931000062X
Bhattacharyya, G. (1988). Ethnicities and Values in a Changing World, London: Ashgate.
Borda, S. (2016). “La justicia internacional no es negocio de mujeres” Revista Arcadia, 23 de agosto de 2016.
Buhigas Jiménez, R. (2018). “Los gitanos en la historia (I) Un estado de la cuestión transnacional hasta la actualidad”, O Tchatchipen: lil ada trin tchona rodipen romani = revista trimestral de investigación gitana, no. 101, pp. 8-30.
Bunescu, I. (2014). Roma in Europe: The Politics of Collective Identity Formation. London and New York: Routledge.
Campbell, K. (2007). “The Gender of Transitional Justice: Law, Sexual Violence and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia”, The International Journal of Transitional Justice, vol. 1, pp. 411-432. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijtj/ijm033
Ceneda, S. (2002). Romani Women from Central and Eastern Europe: A ‘Fourth World’, or Experience of Multiple Discrimination. Refugee Women’s Resource Project, London: Asylum Aid.
Chinkin, C. (2001). “Women’s International Tribunal on Japanese Military Sexual Slavery”, American Journal of International Law, vol. 95, no 2, pp. 335-341. https://doi.org/10.2307/2661399
Corradi, L. (2021). “Intersectional Alliances to Overcome Gender Subordination: The Case of Roma-Gypsy Traveller Women”, Journal of International Women’s Studies, vol. 22, no. 4 April 2021.
Cukrowska, E. and Kóczé, A. (2013). “Interplay between gender and ethnicity: Exposing Structural Disparities of Romani women”. Roma Inclusion Working Papers, UNDP Europe and the CIS, Bratislava Regional Centre.
Curran, S. (2016). “Intersectionality and Human Rights Law: An Examination of the Coercive Sterilisations of Romani Women” The Equal Rights Review, Vol. Sixteen, pp. 132-159.
European Commission (2012). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, National Roma Integration Strategies: a first step in the implementation of the EU Framework, COM(2012) 226 final, de 21 de mayo de 2012.
European Economic and Social Committee (2018). The situation of Roma women (Exploratory opinion from the European Parliament). SOC/585 de 12/12/2018. https://www.eesc.europa.eu/en/our-work/opinions-information-reports/opinions/situation-roma-women-exploratory-opinion-european-parliament
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (2014). Roma Survey. Data in Focus. Discrimination Against and Living Conditions of Roma Women in 11 EU Member States, Luxemburgo: Publications Office of the European Union. https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-2014-roma-survey-gender_en.pdf
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (2019). Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey. Roma Women in Nine EU Member States. Luxemburgo: Publications Office of the European Union. https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/fra-2019-eu-minorities-survey-roma-women_en.pdf
Fakali (2013). Guía de estrategias de intervención en materia de salud y comunidad gitana, Madrid: Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad. https://www.fakali.org/pdfs/guia_estrategias_entervencion_materia_salud_mujer_gitana.pdf
Fearon, J. D. and Laitin, D. D. 2000. “Violence and the Social Construction of Ethnic Identity.” International Organization, nº 54, vol. 4: 845-877. http://ftp.columbia.edu/itc/journalism/stille/Politics%20Fall%202007/readings%20weeks%206-7/Violence%20and%20the%20Construction%20of%20Ethnic%20Identity.pdf. https://doi.org/10.1162/002081800551398
Franke, K. M. (2006). “Gendered Subjects of Transitional Justice”, Columbia Journal of Gender and Law, Vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 813-828.
Fraser, A. (1995). The gypsies. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
García-Sayán, D. y Giraldo Muñoz, M. (2016). “Reflexiones sobre los procesos de justicia transicional”, EAFIT, Journal of International Law, Vol. 7, no. 2.
Glenny, M. (2012). “Foreword”, in Michael Stewart (ed.) The Gypsy ‘Menace’. Populism and the new Anti-Gypsy Politics. Londres: Hurst & Company.
GQual (2015). Declaration. Campaign for gender parity in international representation. http://www.gqualcampaign.org/about-gqual/
Grossman, N. (2012). “Sex on the Bench: Do Women Judges Matter to the Legitimacy of International Courts?” Chicago Journal of International Law, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 647-684. http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cjil/vol12/iss2/9
Hagay-Frey, A. (2009). Sex and Gender Crimes in the New International Law: Past, Present, Future, Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
Hale, H. E. (2008). The Foundations of Ethnic Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511790669
Hall, S. (2010). Sin Garantías: Trayectorias y Problemáticas en Estudios Culturales.
Halley, Janet (2009). “Rape at Rome: Feminist Interventions in the Criminalization of Sex-Related Violence in Positive International Criminal Law” Michigan Journal of International Law, vol. 30.
Hancock, I. (1987). The Pariah Syndrome: An account of Gypsy slavery and persecution. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers.
Hancock, I. (2002). We are the Romani People. Ame sam e Rromane Džene. Hartfield: University of Hertfordshire Press.
Hancock, I. (2010). Danger! Educated Gypsy: Selected Essays. Hatfield: University Of Hertfordshire Press.
Heathcote, Gina (2012). “Naming and Shaming: Human Rights Accountability in Security Council Resolution 1960 (2010) on Women, Peace and Security” Journal of Human Rights Practice, vol. 0, no. 0, pp. 82-105. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhuman/hus003
Ilić, R. (2000), “Romani Women in Romani and Majority Societies”, Roma Rights, no. 1. http://www.errc.org/cikk.php?cikk=626
Ivanov, A.; Collins, M.; Grosu, C.; Kling, J.; Milcher, S.; O’Higgins, N.; Slay, B. and Zhelyazkova, A. (2006). At Risk: Roma and the Displaced in Southeast Europe: Dimensions of Vulnerability, Bratislava: UNDP.
Janević, T; Sripad, P; Bradley, E and Dimitrievska, V. (2011). “«There’s no Kind of Respect Here» A Qualitative Study of Racism and Access to Maternal Health Care among Romani Women in the Balkans” International Journal for Equity in Health. Avalilable at http://www.equityhealthj.com/content/10/1/53. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-9276-10-53
Jara Gómez, A. M. (2019). “The Building of Exclusionary Identities and Its Effects on Human Rights”, The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Civic and Political Studies, vol 14, no. 1, pp. 1-14.
Jenkins, R. (1997). Rethinking Ethnicity. Arguments and explorations. London: SAGE Publications.
Jones, A. (1998). “Migration, ethnicity and conflict: Oxfam’s experience of working with Romani communities in Tuzla, Bosnia-Hercegovina”, Gender and Development, vol. 6 (Gender and Migration). https://doi.org/10.1080/741922631
Kóczé, A. (2009). Missing Intersectionality. Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Class in Current Research and Policies on Romani Women in Europe. Budapest: Central European University.
Kóczé, A.; Zentai, V.; Jovanović, J. and Vincze, E. (2018). The Romani Women’s Movement. Struggles and Debates in Central and Eastern Europe. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351050395
Liégeois, J. P. (2007). Roma in Europe. Strasbourg: Council of Europe
MacKinnon, C. A. (1994). “Crimes of War Crimes of Peace”, UCLA Women’s Law Journal, Vol. 59, pp. 59-86.
Mayall, D. (2004). Gypsy Identities 1500-2000. From Egipcyans and Moon-men to the Ethnic Romany. London-New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203490051
Merhaut, M. (2019). “Theoretical studies focused on gender discrimination against Roma women in the Czech Republic”, Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, Vol. 6, No. 1. http://www.ejecs.org/index.php/JECS/article/view/147. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/147
Mertus, J. A. (1999). Kosovo: How Myths and Truths Started a War, California: University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520341579
Mertus, J. A. (2008). “When Adding Women Matters: Women’s Participation in the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia” Seton Hall Law Review, vol. 38, pp. 1297-1326.
O’Higgins, N. (2010). “«Its not that I’m a racist, it’s that they are Roma»: Roma Discrimination and Returns to Education in South Eastern Europe”. International Journal of Manpower, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 163-187. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437721011042250
Olujić, M. B. (1998). “Embodiment of Terror: Gendered Violence in Peacetime and Wartime in Croatia and Bosnia Herzegovina”, Medical Anthropology Quarterly, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 31-50. https://doi.org/10.1525/maq.1998.12.1.31
O’Reilly, M.; Ó Súilleabháin, A. and Paffenholz, T. (2015). “Reimagining Peacemaking: Women’s Roles in Peace Processes” New York: International Peace Institute, June 2015. https://www.ipinst.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/IPI-E-pub-Reimagining-Peacemaking.pdf
Peach, L. (2001). “Are Women Human? The Promise and Perils of “Women’s Rights as Human Rights””. In Bell, L. S.; Nathan, A. J. and Peleg, I. (eds.) Negotiating Culture and Human Rights, New York: Columbia University Press. https://doi.org/10.7312/bell12080-009
Peña García, P. (2020). “Mujeres gitanas y feminismo: un movimiento sin diseccionar”, Ehquidad Revista Internacional de Políticas de Bienestar y Trabajo Social, no 13.
Pérez de la Fuente, O. (2008). “Mujeres gitanas: de la exclusion a la esperanza”, Universitas. Revista de Filosofía, Derecho y Política, no. 7, pp. 109-146. https://e-archivo.uc3m.es/bitstream/handle/10016/8495/mujeres_perez_URFDP_2008.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Petrova, D. (2003). “The Roma: Between a Myth and the Future”, Social Research, Vol. 70, No. 1, Pariah Minorities (spring 2003), pp. 111-161.
Picker, G. (2012). “Left-wing Progress? Neo-nationalism and the Case of Romany Migrants in Italy”. In Stewart, M. (ed.) The Gypsy ‘Menace’. Populism and the new Anti-Gypsy Politics. Londres: Hurst & Company.
Ravnbøl, C. I. (2010). “The Human Rights of Minority Women: Romani Women’s Rights from a Perspective on International Human Rights Law and Politics” International Journal on Minority and Group Rights, no. 17, pp. 1–45. https://opcedaw.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/ravnbc3b8l-the-hr-of-minority-women.pdf. https://doi.org/10.1163/157181110X12595859744123
Ray, A. E. (1997). “The Shame of It: Gender-Based Terrorism in the Former Yugoslavia and the Failure of International Human Rights Law to Comprehend the Injuries” American University Law Review 46, no. 3, pp. 793-840.
Ringold, D., Orenstein, A. and Wilkens, E. (2005). Roma in an Expanding Europe: Breaking the Poverty Cycle. Washington D. C.: The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/0-8213-5457-4
Roe, P. (2005). Ethnic Violence and the Societal Security Dilemma. London and New York: Routledge.
Skjelsbæk, I. (2001). “Sexual Violence and War: Mapping Out a Complex Relationship”, European Journal of International Relations, no. 7, pp. 211-237. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066101007002003
Tajfel, H. and Turner, J. (1979). “An integrative theory of intergroup conflict”. In William G. Austin and Stephen Worchel (eds.). The social psychology of intergroup relations. Monterey: Brooks/Cole Pub.
Todorov, Z. (1991). Nosotros y los otros. Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI Editores.
United Nations (2010). Guidance Note of the Secretary-General: United Nations Approach to Transitional Justice, March 2010. https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/files/TJ_Guidance_Note_March_2010FINAL.pdf
Vallés, M. H. (2019). “El proceso de construcción y categorización de la alteridadla categoría «tigani / gitano» en la historia de Rumanía”, Ius fugit: Revista interdisciplinar de estudios histórico-jurídicos, no. 22. https://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/38/03/06valles.pdf
Weiss-Wendt, A. (2015). The Nazi Genocide of the Roma, New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books
Wizner, B. (2002). “How the Roma make a living”. In Kállai, E. (ed.) The Gypsys/The Roma in Hungarian Society. Budapest: Teleki László Foundation.
Women in the Law Project of the International Human Rights Law Group (1994). “No Justice, No Peace: Accountability for Rape and Gender Based Violence in the Former Yugoslavia”, Hastings Women’s Law Journal vol. 5, no. 1.
Žarkov, Dubravka (2007). The Body of War: Media, Ethnicity and Gender in the Break- up of Yugoslavia, Durham: Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv11cw34p
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2021 Ana María Jara Gómez
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
