Disinformation, Misinformation and Limits on Freedom of Expression During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Critical Inquiry

Authors

  • Leopoldo García Ruiz Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.17561/tahrj.v21.8149

Keywords:

Disinformation, misinformation, freedom of expression, right to information, fact-checking, censorship, COVID-19

Abstract

The recurring controversy over the limits of freedom of expression is today inextricably linked to the phenomenon of disinformation and misinformation on social networks. We thus address this phenomenon in the first place, along with the strategies deployed in the last decade to fight it. The controversy is then analyzed in the context of the recent COVID-19 pandemic and the institutional response it has generated worldwide, with a main focus on the situation in the United States and the EU. Finally, a critical examination of this response follows, along with some facts and reflections regarding the current post-pandemic scenario.

References

AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL (2020): “COVID-19: vigilancia digital y derechos humanos”, Amnistía Internacional Argentina (official website), April 6, https://amnistia.org.ar/covid-19-vigilancia-y-amenaza-para-tus-derechos/.

BIGLINO CAMPOS, P. & DURÁN ALBA, J. F. (dirs.) (2021): Los efectos horizontales de la COVID-19 sobre el sistema constitucional: estudios sobre la primera oleada, Madrid, Fundación Giménez Abad.

BLANQUER, D. (coord.) (2023): COVID-19 y Derecho Público (durante el estado de alarma y más allá), Valencia, Tirant lo Blanch.

BOTERO MARINO, C. (2017): “La regulación estatal de las llamadas ‘noticias falsas’ desde la perspectiva del derecho a la libertad de expresión”, in VV. AA., Libertad de expresión: a 30 años de la Opinión Consultiva sobre la colegiación obligatoria de periodistas, Bogotá, Fundación para la Libertad de Prensa, 65–82.

CLARKE, L. (2021): “Covid-19: Who fact checks health and science on Facebook?”, British Medical Journal; 373. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n1170.

COTINO HUESO, L. (2022): “Quién, cómo y qué regular (o no regular) frente a la desinformación”, Teoría y Realidad Constitucional, vol. 49, 199–238.

COUNCIL OF EUROPE (2020): “Press freedom must not be undermined by measures to counter disinformation about COVID-19”, statement of the Commissioner for Human Rights, April 3, https://www.coe.int/fi/web/commissioner/-/press-freedom-must-not-be-undermined-by-measures-to-counter-disinformation-about-covid-19.

COX, A. (1986): “First Amendment”, Society, vol. 24-1, 8–15.

CUADROS AGUILERA, P. (2022): “La salud pública como límite al derecho a la investigación científica en el caso de las vacunas”, Cuadernos Electrónicos de Filosofía del Derecho, no. 45, 30–55.

DE LA NUEZ SÁNCHEZ-CASCADO, E. (2022): “¿Se puede regular la verdad?”, HayDerecho.com, https://www.hayderecho.com/2022/07/20/se-puede-regular-la-verdad/.

DE LA SIERRA, S. (2020): “Lectura de urgencia de las reacciones frente al COVID-19 desde una óptica jurídica internacional y comparada”, El Cronista del Estado Social y Democrático de Derecho, vol. 86-87, 32–41.

DOUEK, E. (2020): “COVID-19 and Social Media Content Moderation”, Lawfare, March 25, https://www.lawfareblog.com/covid-19-and-social-media-content-moderation.

ESPALIÚ-BERDUD, C. (2022). “Legal and criminal prosecution of disinformation in Spain in the context of the European Union”, Profesional de la Información, vol. 31 (3), e310322, https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2022.may.22.

EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2018): EU Code of Practice on Disinformation, https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/dae/redirection/document/87534.

EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2020a): “Tackling COVID-19 disinformation - Getting the facts right”, Joint Communication to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, June 10, JOIN(2020) 8 final, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52020JC0008.

EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2020b): 2020 Rule of Law Report. The rule of law situation in the European Union, Communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, September 30, COM(2020) 580 final, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52020DC0580.

EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2022), The Strengthened Code of Practice on Disinformation, June 16, https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/2022-strengthened-code-practice-disinformation.

EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT (2020a), Resolution of 17 April 2020 on EU coordinated action to combat the COVID-19 pandemic and its consequences (2020/2616(RSP)), at https://WWW.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-9-2020-0054_EN.html.

EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT (2020b), Resolution of 25 November 2020 on strengthening media freedom: the protection of journalists in Europe, hate speech, disinformation and the role of platforms (2020/2009(INI)), https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-9-2020-11-25_EN.html.

EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT (2022), Special Committee on COVID-19 Pandemic, October 10th, https://multimedia.europarl.europa.eu/en/webstreaming/covi-committee-meeting_20221010-1430-COMMITTEE-COVI.

GARCÍA MORALES, M. J. (2013): “La prohibición de la censura en la era digital”, Teoría y realidad constitucional, vol. 31, 237–276.

GARCÍA RUIZ, L. (2022): “Vacunas, certificados COVID y control de fronteras; reflexiones en torno al caso Djokovic”, Revista Chilena de Derecho, vol. 49 (3), 89–108.

GOSZTONYI, G. (2021): “Special Models of Internet and Content Regulation in China and Russia”, ELTE Law Journal, vol. 2021/2, 87–99.

GOSZTONYI, G. (2023): “Being honest with people? The state of freedom of expression and censorship in Central and Eastern Europe during the COVID-19 pandemic”, in Gosztonyi, G. & Lazar, E. (eds.), Media Regulation during the COVID-19 Pandemic A Study from Central and Eastern Europe, Cambridge, Ethics International Press.

GRAY, M. (2020): “Everyone is talking about an ‘abundance of caution’. Why are we not reassured?”, The Washington Post, published November 3, https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/11/03/abundance-caution-cliche-language-pandemic/.

JIMÉNEZ GONZÁLEZ, A., y CANCELA RODRÍGUEZ, E. (2023): “Es posible gobernar a las grandes tecnológicas? Análisis crítico de la Ley Europea de Servicios Digitales”, Teknocultura. Revista de Cultura Digital y Movimientos Sociales, vol. 20 (1), 93–99.

KESLER, C. R. (2020): “An Abundance of Caution”, Claremont Review of Books, vol. XX (2), https://claremontreviewofbooks.com/an-abundance-of-caution/.

LENZER, J., & BROWNLEE, S. (2020): “The COVID Science Wars”, Scientific American, November 30, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-covid-science-wars1/.

LIESTER, M. B. (2022): “The suppression of dissent during the COVID-19 pandemic”, Social Epistemology Review and Reply Collective, vol. 11 (4), 53–76.

MAGALLÓN-ROSA, R. (2022): “De las fake news a la polarización digital. Una década de desinformación y propaganda”, Más Poder Local, no. 50, 49–65.

MAGDALENO ALEGRÍA, A. (2006): Los límites de las libertades de expresión e información en el Estado social y democrático de Derecho, Madrid, Congreso de los Diputados.

MAGNESS, P. W. & HARRIGAN, J. R. (2021): “Fauci, Emails, and Some Alleged Science”, American Institute for Economic Research, December 19, https://www.aier.org/article/fauci-emails-and-some-alleged-science/.

MARTÍNEZ-SICLUNA SEPÚLVEDA, C. & CARABANTE MUNTADA, J. M. (eds.) (2022): Pandemia y Estado de Derecho, Valencia, Tirant lo Blanch.

NIEMIEC, E. (2020): “COVID-19 and misinformation”, EMBO Reports, vol. 21, 1–4.

NOGRADY, B. (2021): “Scientists under attack. A survey of scientists on impact of speaking to the media”, at https://media.nature.com/original/magazine-assets/d41586-021-02741-x/19756934, a supplement to Nogrady. B. (2021): “‘I hope you die’: how the COVID pandemic unleashed attacks on scientists”, Nature, vol. 598, 250–253.

OREMUS, W. (2022): “Tech giants banned Trump. But did they censor him?”, The Washington Post, January 7th, https://wapo.st/3bgzBMP.

PECH, L. (2021): The concept of chilling effect. Its untapped potential to better protect democracy, the rule of law, and fundamental rights in the EU, Brussels, Open Society European Policy Institute, March 2021, available at https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/uploads/c8c58ad3-fd6e-4b2d-99fa-d8864355b638/the-concept-of-chilling-effect-20210322.pdf.

PERALTA GUTIÉRREZ, A. (2021): “La verdad no justifica la censura. El juicio comparado de derechos en materia de desinformación, seguridad nacional y libertad de expresión”, Diario La Ley, nº 9772, January 18.

RAMÓN-VEGAS, X. et al. (2020): “Social media and fact-checking platforms against disinformation about COVID-19”, Hipertext.net, no. 21, 79–92.

SHAHBAZ, A. (2018): “Freedom on the Net 2018: The rise of digital authoritarianism. Fake news, data collection and the challenge to democracy”, Freedom House, https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-net/2018/rise-digital-authoritarianism.

SHELLENBERGER, M. (2023): “The Censorship Industrial Complex. U.S. Government Support for Domestic Censorship and Disinformation Campaigns, 2016-2022”, Testimony to The House Select Committee on the Weaponization of the Federal Government, March 9, https://judiciary.house.gov/sites/evo-subsites/republicans-judiciary.house.gov/files/evo-media-document/shellenberger-testimony.pdf.

SHIR-RAZ, Y., et al. (2022): “Censorship and Suppression of Covid-19 Heterodoxy: Tactics and Counter-Tactics”, Minerva. A Review of Science, Learning and Policy. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11024-022-09479-4.

SOAVE, R. (2023): “Inside the Facebook Files: emails reveal the CDC's role in silencing COVID-19 dissent”, Reason, Jan. 19, https://reason.com/2023/01/19/facebook-files-emails-cdc-covid-vaccines-censorship/.

UN HUMAN RIGHTS COUNCIL (2020), “Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression”, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression (A/HRC/44/49), April 23rd, https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/thematic-reports/ahrc4449-disease-pandemics-and-freedom-opinion-and-expression-report.

UN HUMAN RIGHTS COUNCIL (2021), “Disinformation and freedom of opinion and expression”, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression (A/HRC/47/25), April 13, https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/thematic-reports/ahrc4725-disinformation-and-freedom-opinion-and-expression-report.

UN-OSCE-IACHR (2020), Joint statement of March 19th by the UN Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression; the OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media, and the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the IACHR, https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2020/03/covid-19-governments-must-promote-and-protect-access-and-free-flow.

UN-OSCE-OAS-ACHPR (2017): Joint Declaration on Freedom of Expression and Fake News, Disinformation and Propaganda, signed on March 3rd by the UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Opinion and Expression, the OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media, the OAS Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression, and the ACHPR Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, at https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2017/03/freedom-expression-monitors-issue-joint-declaration-fake-news-disinformation.

USCINSKI, J. & RYDEN, W. B. (2013): “The Epistemology of Fact Checking”, Critical Review, vol. 25 (2), 162–180.

VAN AARDT, W. (2022): “The new era of COVID-19 legal paternalism and the limitation of fundamental human rights”, De Rebus, Jan/Feb. edition, 43–44.

VOGELS, E. A., PERRIN, A, & ANDERSON, M. (2020), “Most Americans Think Social Media Sites Censor Political Viewpoints”, Pew Research Center, Aug. 19, https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2020/08/19/most-americans-think-social-media-sites-censor-political-viewpoints/.

WARDLE, C. & DERAKHSHAN, H. (2017): Information disorder: Toward an interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making, Council of Europe report DGI(2017)09, September 27, https://rm.coe.int/information-disorder-toward-an-interdisciplinary-framework-for-researc/168076277c.

Published

2023-12-04

Issue

Section

ARTICLES

How to Cite

Disinformation, Misinformation and Limits on Freedom of Expression During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Critical Inquiry. (2023). The Age of Human Rights Journal, 21, e8149. https://doi.org/10.17561/tahrj.v21.8149