Individuals in International Law: A Historical Shift towards Agency

Natale Seron Arizmendi

doi:10.17561/tahrj.v25.9536

Authors

Natale Seron Arizmendi University of Deusto

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.17561/tahrj.v25.9536

Keywords:

Legal Subjectivity, Human Rights, International Accountability, Agency

Abstract

With the end of the Second World War, the deficiencies of the traditional State-centred approach, grounded on the principle of sovereignty, became evident. Elaborating on the limitations of the State-solo legal doctrine, this article provides insights into the evolution of the individual’s legal personality in international law, highlighting the decline of State-centrism and the rise of new actors and principles. To address this research goal, the article first explores the concept of legal personality and foundational views on individual subjectivity, then traces the progressive recognition of individuals’ autonomy, and finally assesses how the human rights paradigm has strengthened individual empowerment.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

ALSTON, P. and GOODMAN, R. (2013). International Human Rights: The Successor to International Human Rights in Context. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

ARNISON, N. D. (1993). ‘International Law and Non-Intervention: When Do Humanitarian Concerns Supersede Sovereignty?’, The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs, 17(2), pp. 199-211.

AUSTIN, J. (2012). The Province of Jurisprudence Determined. New Yersey: The Lawbook Exchange, LTD.

BENAVIDES-CASALS, M. A. (2016). ‘La Constitución del Derecho Internacional, el Sueño de un Reducto Jurídico Occidental’, Revista Colombiana de Derecho Internacional, 28, pp. 9-48, https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.il14-28.cdis

BIANCHI, A. (2008). ‘Human Rights and the Magic of Jus Cogens’, The European Journal of International Law, 19 (3), pp. 491–508, https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chn026

BRÖLMANN, C. and NIJMAN, J. (2017). ‘Legal Personality as a Fundamental Concept for International Law’, Amsterdam Law School Legal Studies Research Paper, n. 2016-43, Amsterdam Center for International Law, University of Amsterdam, pp. 1-17, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2845222

BROWN, B. S. (1992). ‘The Protection of Human Rights in Disintegrating States: A New Challenge’, Chicago-Kent Dedication Symposium, 68(1), pp. 203-228.

BULL, H. (2005). La Sociedad Anarquica. Barcelona: Catarata.

CAIANIELLO, M. and ILLUMINATI, G. (2001). ‘From the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia to the International Criminal Court’, North Carolina Journal of International Law, 26(2) pp. 407-455.

CALLEJÓN, C., KEMILEVA, K. and KIRCHMEIER, F. (2019). ‘Treaty Bodies’ Individual Communication Procedures’, Geneva Academy.

CANÇADO TRINDADE, A. A. (2006). ‘The Emancipation of the Individual from His Own State’, Revista do Instituto rasileiro de Direitos Humanos, 7(7), pp. 11-36.

CANÇADO TRINDADE, A. A. (2007). ‘La persona humana como sujeto del derecho internacional: avances de su capacidad jurídica internacional en la primera década del siglo XXI’, San José-Costa Rica: XXV Curso Interdisciplinario en Derechos Humanos.

CANÇADO TRINDADE, A. A. (2013). International Law for Humankind: Towards a New Jus Gentium. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.

CARRILLO SALCEDO, J. A. (2000). ‘Derechos Humanos y Derecho Internacional’, Isegoría, 22, pp. 69-81, https://doi.org/10.3989/isegoria.2000.i22.522

CARRILLO SANTARELLI, N. (2008). ‘Non-State Actors’ Human Rights Obligations and Responsibility under International Law’, Revista Electrónica de Estudios Internacionales, 15, pp. 1-10.

CASANOVA, O. and RODRIGO, A. J. (2019). Compendio de Derecho internacional Público. Madrid: Tecnos.

CASSESE, A. (1990). ‘Remarks on Scelle's Theory of "Role Splitting" (dedoublement fonctionnel) in International Law’, European Journal of International Law, 1, pp. 210-231, https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.ejil.a035763

CASSIDY, J. (2004). ‘Emergence of the Individual as an International Juristic Entity: Enforcement of International Human Rights’, Deakin Law Review, 9(2), pp. 533-573, https://doi.org/10.21153/dlr2004vol9no2art255

CHARNOVITZ, S. (2006). ‘Nongovernmental Organizations and International Law’, The American Journal of International Law, 100(2), pp. 348-372, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0002930000016699

CJEU (2020). ‘DPC v. Facebook Ireland and Schrems’ C-311/18 ECLI:EU:C:2020:559.

CLARK, J. (1992). ‘Democratising development: NGOs and the state’, Development in Practice, 2(3), pp. 151-162, https://doi.org/10.1080/096145249200077991

CORTÉS RODAS, F. (2011). De Westfalia a Cosmópolis: soberanía, ciudadanía, derechos humanos y justicia económica globalmente. Bogotá: Siglo del Hombre Editores.

DÍAZ BARRADO, C. (2016). ‘Algunas Reflexiones sobre el Individuo en el Derecho Internacional’, in Barranco Avilés, M. C., Celador Angón, O. and Vacas Fernández, F. (coords.), Perspectivas actuales de los sujetos de derecho. Madrid: Dynkinson, pp. 15-36.

DURAN BÄCHLER, S. (1992). ‘El Individuo como Sujeto del Derecho Internacional. Nuevas tendencias’, in Leon Steffens, A. (coord.), Nuevos enfoques del Derecho Internacional. Chile: Editorial Jurídica de Chile, pp. 61-76.

ECtHR (2024). ‘Verein Klimaseniorinnen Schweiz and Others v. Switzerland’ App. no. 53600/20.

FARINELLA, F. (2013). Sujetos del derecho internacional: una revisión a la luz de los Derechos Humanos. Mar del Plata: Eudem.

FERNÁNDEZ RUIZ-GÁLVEZ, E. (2017). ‘El totus orbis y el jus gentium en Francisco de Vitoria: el equilibrio entre tradición e innovación’, Cuadernos Electrónicos de Filosofía del Derecho, 35, pp. 19-43, https://doi.org/10.7203/CEFD.35.9671

FRIEDMANN, W. (1964). The Changing Structure of International Law. London: Stevens & Sons.

GIORGETTI, C. (2019). ‘Rethinking the Individual in International Law’, Lewis & Clark Law Review, 22(4), pp. 1085-1149.

GIORGI, M. (2019). ‘The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations in the Process of International Treaty Making’, Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional, 1(19), pp. 153-177, https://doi.org/10.22201/iij.24487872e.2019.19.13321

GÓMEZ ISA, F. (2006). ‘International Protection of Human Rights’, in Gómez Isa, F. and de Feyter, K. (eds.) International Protection of Human Rights: Achievements and Challenges. Bilbao: University of Deusto, pp. 19-47.

GROTIUS, H. (2005). De iure belli ac pacis libri tres in quibus jus naturae et gentium, item juris pubuci praecipua explicantur (New Ed. 1646). New Yersey: The Lawbook Exchange, LTD.

HAMPTON, J. (1986). Hobbes and the Social Contract Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

HANSUNGULE, M. (2009). ‘Protection of Human Rights under the Inter-American System: An Outsider’s Reflection’ in Alfredsson, G., Grimheden, J., Ramcharan, B. G. and Zayas, A. (eds.) International Human Rights Monitoring Mechanisms. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, pp. 680-705.

HEGEL, G. W. F. (2022). Principios de la filosofía del derecho. Argentina: Ediciones Olejnik.

HELD, D. (1997). La democracia y el orden global: del Estado moderno al gobierno cosmopolita. Barcelona: Paidós.

HOBBES, T. (1885). Leviathan or the matter, form and power of a common-wealth ecclesiastical and civil. London: George Routledge and Sons.

HUME, D. (1751). An enquiry concerning the principles of morals. London: A Millar.

ICC (1998). ‘Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court’ A/CONF.183/9.

ICJ (1949). ‘Reparation for Injuries suffered in the Service of the United Nations’ Adv. Op. 174.

ICJ (2001). ‘LaGrand Case (Germany v. United States of America)’ 104 p. 406.

ICJ (2004). ‘Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America)’ 128 p. 12.

IMT (1947). ‘Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal’ vol. I.

JANIS, M. W. (1984). ‘Individuals as Subjects of International Law’, Cornell International Law Journal, 17(1), pp. 61-78, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1101693

JESSUP, P. C. (1956). Transnational Law. New Havaen: Yale University Press.

KACZOROWSKA, A. (2010). Public International Law. UK: Routledge.

KELSEN, H. (2000). Peace Through Law. New Yersey: The Lawbook Exchange Ltd.

KING, JR, H. T. (1996). ‘Nuremberg and Sovereignty’, Case Western Resesrve Journal of International Law, 28(1), pp. 135-140.

LAGE, D. A. and BRANT, L. N. C. (2008). ‘The Growing Influence of Non-Governmental Organizations: Chances and Risks’, III Anuário Brasileiro de Direito Internacional, 1, pp. 79-93.

LAUTERPACHT, H. (1950). International Law and Human Rights. New York: F. A. Praeger.

LAUTERPACHT, H. (2013). An International Bill of the Rights of Man. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

MCDOUGAL, M. S. and REISMAN, W. M. (1965). ‘Unchanging Theory for Inquiry’, Columbia Law Review, 65(5), pp. 810–835, https://doi.org/10.2307/1120746

MILANO, E. (2004). ‘Diplomatic Protection and Human Rights Before the International Court of Justice: Re-Fashioning Tradition?’, Netherlands Yearbook of International Law, 35, pp. 85-142, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0167676804000856

NELSON, P. J. and DORSEY, E. (2008). New Rights Advocacy: Changing Strategies of Development and Human Rights NGOs. Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press.

NÚÑEZ PEGUERO, I. (2012). ‘¿Subjetividad Internacional de las ONG?’ in Becerra Ramírez, M. and González Martín, N. (coords.) Estado de Derecho Internacional. Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, pp. 321-335.

NYSSANBEKOVA, L., TOKTYBEKOV, T., YESSETOVA, S. and ZHANAT, Z. (2016). ‘Some Aspects of Personality of Individual in International Law (Rights of Individual in the International Criminal Court, Rights of Migrants, Refugees, Rights of Women and Children in International Humanitarian Law, Rights of Investors)’, Journal of Advanced Research in Law and Economics, 7(6), pp. 1461-1470, https://doi.org/10.14505/jarle.v7.6(20).25

OCRAN, T. M. (2002). ‘The Doctrine of Humanitarian Intervention in Light of Robust Peacekeeping’, Boston College International and Comparative Law Review, 25(1), pp. 1-58.

OHCHR (2007). ‘Legislative History of the Convention on the Rights of the Child’ HR/PUB/07/1 vol. II.

ORAKHELASHVILI, A. (2001). ‘The Position of the Individual in International Law’, California Western International Law Journal, 31(2), 241-276.

PARKER, R. (1956). ‘Legal Positivism», Notre Dame Lawyer, 32(1), pp. 31-42.

PARLETT, K. (2011). The Individual and Structural Change in the International Legal System. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

PAVEL, C. E. (2021). ‘Hume’s Dynamic Coordination and International Law’, Political Theory, 49(2), pp. 1-28, https://doi.org/10.1177/00905917209218

PCIJ (1928). ‘Collection of Advisory Opinion: Jursidiction of the Courts of Danzig’ Series B, no. 15.

PECES-BARBA MARTÍNEZ, G., and DORADO PORRAS, J. (2001). ‘Derecho, Sociedad y Cultura en el siglo XVIII’ in Rodríguez Uribes, J. M., and Ansuátegui Roig, F. J. (dirs.) Historia de los Derechos Fundamentales. Tomo II: siglo XVIII. Volumen I. Madrid: Dykinson, pp. 7-219.

PÉREZ-LEÓN, J. P. (2008). ‘El Individuo como Sujeto de Derecho Internacional. Análisis de la Dimensión activa de la Subjetividad Jurídica Internacional del Individuo’, Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional, 8, pp. 599-642, https://doi.org/10.22201/iij.24487872e.2008.8.256

PILLAY, N. (2012). ‘Strengthening the United Nations human rights treaty body system. A report by the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights’, United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner.

PORTMANN, R. (2010). Legal Personality in International Law. New York: Cambridge University Press.

POSTEMA, G. J. (2019). Utility, Publicity, and Law: Essays on Bentham's Moral and Legal Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

PREWITT-DAVIS, E. (2015). ‘The Corporation and the Common God: Biopolitics and the Death of God’, in Johnson-DeBaufre, M., Keller, C. and Ortega-Aponte, E. (eds.) Common Goods: Economy, Ecology, and Political Theology. New York: Fordham University Press, pp. 229–247

PURCELL, Jr., E. A. (2014). ‘Democracy, the Constitution, and Legal Positivism in America: Lessons from a Winding and Troubled History’, Florida Law Review, 66(4), pp. 1457-1511.

RIVERO GODOY, J. M. (2010). ‘La Persona como Sujeto de Derecho Internacional’, Revista Latinoamericana de Derechos Humanos, 21(2), pp. 35-49.

ROJANO ESQUIVEL, J. C. (2013). ‘Del Totus Orbis al Ordo Orbis. El Pensamiento Internacionalista de Francisco de Vitoria’, in García Flores, E. (ed.) Globalización y derecho internacional en la primera década del siglo XXI. México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, pp. 155-181.

ROJAS, D. M. (2004). ‘La historia y las relaciones internacionales: de la historia internacional a la historia global», Historia Crítica, 1(27), pp. 153-167, https://doi.org/10.7440/histcrit27.2004.08

SALAKO, S. E. (2019). ‘The Individual in International Law: ‘Object’ versus ‘Subject’, International Law Research, 8(1), pp. 132-143, DOI: https://doi.org/10.5539/ilr.v8n1p132

SALVIOLI, F. and QUESADA, L. J. (1994). ‘El individuo y los Derechos Humanos’, Relaciones Internacionales, http://sedici.unlp.edu.ar/handle/10915/10157

SCELLE, G. (1932). Précis de droit du gens (Vol. I). Paris: Librairie du Recueil Sirey.

SCELLE, G. (1948). Manuel De Droit International Public. Paris: Domat-Montchrestien

SMITH, B. (1928). ‘Legal Personality’, Yale Law Journal, 37(3), pp. 283-299, https://doi.org/10.2307/789740

SPIROPOULOS, J. (1928). L'Individu en droit international. Paris: Librairie générale de droit et de jurisprudence

ST. KOROWICZ, M. (1956). ‘The Problem of the International Personality of Individuals’, The American Journal of International Law, 50(3), pp. 533-562, https://doi.org/10.2307/2195506

SUAREZ, F. (2015). Selections from Three Works: A Treatise on Laws and God the Lawgiver; a Defence of the Catholic and Apostolic Faith; a Work on the Three Theological Virtues: Faith, Hope, and Charity. Pink, T (ed.). Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, Incorporated.

SZAZI, E. (2012). NGOs: Legitimate Subjects of International Law. Leiden: Leiden University Press.

TEDESCO, F. M. (2017). ‘Individual Sovereignity: From Kelsen to the Increase in the Source of the Law’, in Langford, P., Bryan, I. and McGarry, J. (eds.) Kelsenian Legal Science and the Nature of Law. Cham: Springer.

THE WORLD CONFERENCE ON HUMAN RIGHTS (1993). ‘Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action’ A/CONF.157/23.

THIERRY, H. (1990). ‘The Thought of Georges Scelle’, European Journal of International Law, 1(1), pp. 193-209, https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/1.1.193

TOMUSCHAT, C. (2014). Human Rights: Between Idealism and Realism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

TZEVELEKOS, V. P. and BERKES, A. (2021). ‘Sociological objectivism: Still relevant?’, in Deplano, R. and Tsagourias, N. (eds.) Research Methods in International Law A Handbook. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.

UN (1963). ‘Vienna Convention on Consular Relations’ 596 UNTS 261.

UNGA (1948). ‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights’ 217 A (III).

UNGA (1966a). ‘International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’ 993 UNTS 3.

UNGA (1966b). ‘International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights’ 999 UNTS 171.

UNGA (1989). ‘Convention on the Rights of the Child’ 1577 UNTS 3.

UNGA (2001a). ‘Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflicts’ A/RES/54/263.

UNGA (2001b). ‘Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography’ A/RES/54/263.

UNHRC (2011). ‘Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on a Communications Procedure’ A/HRC/RES/17/18.

UNODC and UNDP (2016). ‘Global Study on Legal Aid Global Report’

UNSC (1993). ‘Resolution 827’ S/RES/827.

UNSC (1994). ‘Resolution 955’S/RES/955.

UN Secretary General (2005). ‘In larger freedom: towards development, security and human rights for all’ A/59/2005.

US Suprime Court. (1784). ‘Republica v. De Longchamps’ 1 US 1 Dall. 111.

VATTEL, E. (1758). Le droit des gens, ou principes de la lol naturelle appliques a la conduite et aux affaires des nations et des souverains. London: De l'imprimerie de la Société typographique.

VITORIA, F. (2007). Sobre el poder civil, sobre los indios, sobre el derecho de la guerra. Madrid: Tecnos.

VON BERNSTORFF, J. (2010). The Public International Law Theory of Hans Kelsen: Believing in Universal Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

VON SAVIGNY, F. C. (1831). Of the vocation of our age for legislation and jurisprudence. Old Bailey: Littlewood & co.

WALLACE, R., MARTIN-ORTEGA, O., JANECZKO, F. and WYLIE, K. (2016). International Law. London: Sweet and Maxwell.

WILLIAMS, J. F. (1939). Aspects of Modern International Law: An Essay. London: Oxford University Press.

YANG, K. (2012). ‘The Rise of Legal Positivism in Germany: A Prelude to Nazi Arbitrariness?’, The Western Australian Jurist, 3, pp. 245-257.

ZELLWEGER, V. and KOLLER, D. (2007). ‘Non-State Actor, International Criminal Law and the Role of the international Criminal Court’, in Human rights, democracy and the rule of law = Menschenrechte, Demokratie und Rechtsstaat = Droits de l'homme, démocratie et Etat de droit: liber amicorum Luzjus Wildhaber, Luzjus Wildhaber and Stephan Breitenmoser. Zürich: Nomos, pp. 1619-1634.